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Callus A cluster of undifferentiated plant cells that can,
in some species, be induced to form the whole plant.
Carbohydrate A type of biological molecule composed of
simple sugars such as glucose. Common examples
include starch and cellulose.
Carcinogen Cancer-causing agent.
Catalyst An agent (such as an enzyme or a metallic
complex) that facilitates a reaction but is not itself
changed during the reaction.
Cell The smallest structural unit of a living organism
that can grow and reproduce independently.
Cell culture Growth of cells under laboratory conditions.
Cell differentiation The process by which descendants of
a common parental cell achieve specialized structure
and function.
Cell fusion See Fusion.
Cell line Cells that grow and replicate continuously
outside the living organism.
Cell-mediated immunity Acquired immunity in which T
lymphocytes play a predominant role. Development
of the thymus in early life is critical to the proper
development and functioning of cell-mediated
immunity.
Chemical genomics Using structural and functional
genomic information about biological molecules,
especially proteins, to identify useful small molecules
and alter their structure to improve their efficacy.
Chimera The individual (animal or lower organism)
produced by grafting an embryonic part of one
individual onto an embryo of either the same or a
different species.
Chromosomes Threadlike components in the cell that
contain DNA and proteins. Genes are carried on the
chromosomes.
Clinical studies Human studies that are designed to
measure the efficacy of a new drug or biologic. Clinical
studies routinely involve the use of a control group of
patients that is given an inactive substance (placebo)
that looks like the test product.
Clone A term that is applied to genes, cells or entire
organisms that are derived from - and are genetically
identical to - a single common ancestor gene, cell
or organism, respectively. Cloning of genes and cells
to create many copies in the laboratory is a common
procedure essential for biomedical research. Note
that several processes commonly described as cell
"cloning" give rise to cells that are almost but not
completely genetically identical to the ancestor
cell. Cloning of organisms from embryonic cells
occurs naturally in nature (e.g., identical twins).
Researchers have achieved laboratory cloning using
genetic material from adult animals of several species,
including mice, pigs and sheep.
Codon A sequence of three nucleotide bases that specifies
an amino acid or represents a signal to stop or start a
function.
Co-enzyme An organic compound that is necessary for
the functioning of an enzyme. Co-enzymes are smaller
than the enzymes themselves and sometimes separable
from them.
Co-factor A nonprotein substance required for certain
enzymes to function. Co-factors can be co-enzymes or
metallic ions.
Colony-stimulating factors (CSFs) A group of
lymphokines that induce the maturation and
proliferation of white blood cells from the primitive
cell types present in bone marrow.
Combinatorial chemistry A product discovery technique
that uses robotics and parallel synthesis to generate
and screen quickly as many as several million
molecules with similar structure in order to find
chemical molecules with desired properties.
Co-metabolism A microbe oxidizing not only its main
energy source but also another organic compound.
Complementarity The relationship of the nucleotide
bases on two different strands of DNA or RNA. When
the bases are paired properly (adenine with thymine
[DNA] or uracil [RNA]; guanine with cytosine), the
strands are complementary.
Complementary DNA (cDNA) DNA synthesized from
a messenger RNA rather than from a DNA template.
This type of DNA is used for cloning or as a DNA
probe for locating specific genes in DNA hybridization
studies.
Computational biology A subdiscipline within
bioinformatics concerned with computation-based
research devoted to understanding basic biological
processes.
Conjugation Sexual reproduction of bacterial cells in
which there is a one-way exchange of genetic material
between the cells in contact.
Crossing over Exchange of genes between two paired
chromosomes.
Cross-licensing Legal, contractual procedure in
which two or more firms with competing, similar
technologies and possible conflicting patent claims
strike a deal to reduce the need for legal actions
to clarify who is to profit from applications of the
technology.
Culture As a noun, cultivation of living organisms in
prepared medium; as a verb, to grow in prepared
medium.
Culture medium Any nutrient system for the artificial
cultivation of bacteria or other cells; usually a complex
mixture of organic and inorganic materials.
Cyto- Referring to cell.
Cytogenetics Study of the cell and its heredity-related
components, especially chromosomes.
Cytoplasm Cellular material that is within the cell
membrane and surrounds the nucleus.
Cytotoxic Able to cause cell death.
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